The Fate of Marcantonio Bragadin and the Fall of Famagusta

The late 16th century was a time of immense turmoil in the Eastern Mediterranean, marked by the near-constant clash between the Ottoman Empire and the Venetian Republic over the control of the island nation of Cyprus. Especially notable was the Ottoman-Venetian War of 1570-1573. This conflict reached its climax in the Siege of Famagusta, a historic event that not only exemplified the brutal nature of early modern warfare but also left a lasting imprint on European and Ottoman relations. At the center of this harrowing episode was Marcantonio Bragadin, the Venetian commander whose tragic fate became a symbol of resistance and martyrdom. The fall of Famagusta and the subsequent events surrounding Bragadin's demise provide a window into the complexities of warfare, diplomacy, and the ruthless power dynamics of the time.

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Famagusta, the Last Venetian Bastion on Cyprus

Cyprus, an island strategically located in the Eastern Mediterranean, had been under Venetian control since 1489. The island's geographical position made it an asset for controlling trade routes between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. However, Cyprus's significance also made it a target for the expansionist ambitions of the Ottoman Empire. By the mid-16th century, the Ottomans, under Sultan Selim II, had established their dominance across much of the Eastern Mediterranean and were keen to add Cyprus to their empire.

In 1570, the Ottomans launched a massive campaign to conquer Cyprus, driven by the desire to strengthen their naval dominance and eliminate a key Venetian outpost. The conflict was part of the broader struggle between Christian Europe and the Muslim Ottoman Empire, often framed as a continuation of the Crusades.

The Venetian Republic, aware of the impending Ottoman threat, had fortified several key cities on the island, including Nicosia, Kyrenia, and Famagusta. While Nicosia fell quickly to the Ottomans in September 1570, Famagusta, located on the eastern coast of Cyprus, became the focal point of Venetian resistance and their final bastion on the island.

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The port of Famagusta, engraving from the book of Olfert Dapper, 1703. (Public Domain)

Famagusta was one of the most heavily fortified cities in the Eastern Mediterranean. Its walls, originally constructed by the Lusignans and later reinforced by the Venetians, were designed to withstand prolonged sieges. The city was surrounded by a moat and featured strong bastions, making it a formidable challenge for any attacking force. As the Ottoman forces, numbering around 100,000 men, advanced on Famagusta, the city's defenders, led by the Venetian commander Marcantonio Bragadin, prepared for what would become one of the most grueling sieges of the era.

A Rising Commander from Venice

Marcantonio Bragadin, a Venetian noble person and military commander, had been appointed as the governor of Cyprus in 1569. He was known for his dedication, strategic acumen, and deep sense of duty. Many in the city admired him, and praised his swift rise through the ranks, which he earned with hard work.

Sculpture of Marco Antonio Bragadin. (Sailko /CC BY 3.0)

But when the Ottoman forces, commanded by Lala Mustafa Pasha, laid siege to Famagusta in September 1570, Bragadin faced a daunting task. With a garrison of around 7,000 men, including soldiers, sailors, and civilians, he had to defend the city against a vastly superior force.

Upon his arrival in the city, which was so far from Venice, Bragadin accepted his task with unflinching dedication, even though many knew that the chances of success were non-existent. But still, the new commander further fortified the city and made plans to endure the inevitable siege.

A Year of Siege

The siege of Famagusta lasted for nearly a year, from September 1570 to August 1571. The Ottomans, fielding some 100,000 troups and thousands of cannons, bombarded the city relentlessly, using heavy artillery to breach the walls. The defenders, despite being outnumbered and under constant pressure, managed to hold their ground, repelling several Ottoman assaults, and inflicting heavy casualties. It is said that some 50,000 Ottoman soldiers were left dead or wounded during the siege.

Bragadin's leadership during the event was marked by his ability to inspire his men and maintain morale, even as food and ammunition supplies dwindled. The defenders resorted to using makeshift weapons and repurposed materials to continue the fight, exemplifying their determination to resist.

As the months dragged on, the situation inside Famagusta became increasingly desperate. The defenders were running out of food, water, and medical supplies, and disease began to take its toll. All the animals within the city were consumed, and ammunition was virtually non-existent.

Despite these hardships, Bragadin refused to surrender, believing that Venetian reinforcements would eventually arrive to lift the siege. He held onto Famagusta with the pride and devotion of a true Venetian nobleman. However, the Venetian Republic, embroiled in other conflicts and facing its own challenges, was unable to send the necessary support in time.

Map of Famagusta during the siege of the city by the Ottomans in 1571, by the cartographer Giovanni Francesco Camocio.  (Public Domain)

The Pasha’s Vicious Move

By July 1571, it became clear that Famagusta could not hold out much longer. The city's walls had been severely damaged by the constant bombardment, and the defenders were exhausted and demoralized. Realizing the futility of further resistance, Bragadin entered into negotiations with Lala Mustafa Pasha. The latter had no need to negotiate, as his troops were on the verge of entering the city, but even so, he accepted to talk. On August 1,1571, after nearly a year of intense fighting, Bragadin agreed to surrender the city on the condition that the remaining defenders and civilians would be allowed to leave safely.

Illustration of Lala Mustafa Pasha (Public Domain)

The terms of the surrender were initially accepted by Lala Mustafa Pasha, who assured Bragadin that the defenders would be spared and allowed to return to Venice. However, once the Ottomans entered the city, the situation took a drastic turn. According to contemporary accounts, Mustafa Pasha met Bragadin and his men to sign the terms. But suddenly, he became enraged. Many tried to understand why rage consumed him, but no one knows for sure. Some speculate that he became enraged after discovering that the Venetian garrison had hidden some of their remaining supplies and ammunition. Another theory is that he speculated that some of the Ottoman prisoners were executed during the siege. Whether this was a genuine breach of the surrender terms or a pretext for retribution is still debated by historians.

In a brutal act of betrayal, Mustafa Pasha suddenly ordered the massacre of many of the city's defenders and civilians. Within a moment, the scene turned gruesome. The Ottoman soldiers slew the present Venetians, and cut off the ears and nose of Marcantonio Bragadin, at the Pasha’s express order.

The people within the city were also massacred, and only a few managed to flee and hide. But Bragadin was singled out for a particularly gruesome punishment. For two weeks he was left within a dark dungeon, where his wounds festered. Then, he was dragged out and first publicly humiliated - he was forced to carry a heavy sack of earth around the city walls as a symbol of his defeat. Then, came the worst.

Cruel Punishment for a Defeated Enemy

Mustafa Pasha was an infamous commander, known for his cruelty. And now, he showed it in full. After humiliating Bragadin, his captors took him to the town square, stripped him naked, and suspended him upside down. Then, much to the shock of the world, the Ottomans proceeded to flay him alive.

First, they removed the skin from his head, then his torso. Marcantonio Bragadin could not endure the torment - he died at that point. Several Venetians that managed to flee and disguise themselves observed the gruesome scene from the crowds, later to bring the news to Venice. But the Pasha was not done. He had the flayed body of his enemy chopped into four pieces; each one displayed at the city corners. The flayed skin he had stuffed with straw, and the resulting effigy was propped up on an ox and paraded through the city. It was then sent to the Sultan in Constantinople as a trophy.

Marco Antonio Bragadin, being skinned alive outside the Cathedral of Saint Nicolas in Famagusta, Cyprus. Engraving by Antonio Vivani from Venetian History Expressed in 150 Plates.  (Public Domain)

Bragadin's death shocked Europe and became a powerful symbol of the brutal realities of war. The people in Venice, upon hearing the news, erupted in anger and sadness. The manner of Bragadin's execution, combined with the fall of Famagusta, had a profound impact on Venetian public opinion, fueling anti-Ottoman sentiment and contributing to the narrative of a Christian-Muslim conflict.

In Venice, Bragadin was hailed as a martyr, and his legacy was immortalized in art, literature, and public memory. He became a martyred hero, whose gruesome fate was mourned by all citizens.

Only years later, a young Venetian sailor, Girolamo Polidori, discovered the stuffed skin in a dusty arsenal in Constantinople. Recognizing it, he managed to steal it and smuggle it out of the city, bringing the last remains of famed Marcantonio to their home in Venice. A surviving description commemorated the moment:

“The skin was folded to a size of a sheet of paper, solid and palpable as a napkin; they could see his chest hair still attached, and on the right hand, which was flayed, was a nail that still seemed alive.”

-        From: Tracy, L. 2017. Flaying in the Pre-modern World: Practice and Representation. Boydell & Brewer.

A Hero’s Fate

The fall of Famagusta marked the end of Venetian control over Cyprus and solidified Ottoman dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean. The loss of the island was a significant blow to Venice, both strategically and economically. Cyprus had been a key outpost in the Venetian maritime empire, and its capture by the Ottomans shifted the balance of power in the region. The Venetians, however, did not let Bragadin's death go unavenged. In 1571, just months after the fall of Famagusta, a coalition of Christian states, led by Spain and the Papal States, defeated the Ottoman fleet at the famous Battle of Lepanto. This naval battle, though not directly related to the events in Cyprus, was seen as a form of retribution for the massacre at Famagusta and Bragadin's execution.

The memory of Marcantonio Bragadin and the Siege of Famagusta has endured for centuries. In Venice, Bragadin was posthumously honored as a hero and a martyr. His skin was interred with full honors in the Church of San Zanipolo in Venice, where a monument was erected in his memory. The story of Bragadin's bravery and tragic fate was immortalized in Venetian art and literature, becoming a powerful symbol of resistance against tyranny.

Monument in San Zanipolo, Venice. (Santi Giovanni e Paolo/ CC BY-SA 4.0)

If the Walls Could Speak

Famagusta itself, now part of modern-day Cyprus, remains a city with a rich and complex history. The remnants of its Venetian fortifications still stand as a testament to the city's storied past. The siege and fall of Famagusta are remembered as key events in the island's history, representing a turning point in its long and often turbulent relationship with foreign powers.

The fate of Marcantonio Bragadin and the fall of Famagusta are emblematic of the brutal and unforgiving nature of early modern warfare. The siege, marked by immense suffering and extraordinary acts of heroism, culminated in a tragic betrayal that resonated far beyond the shores of Cyprus. Bragadin's death, a stark reminder of the perils faced by those who resisted the tide of Ottoman expansion, became a symbol of martyrdom and resistance in European memory. The fall of Famagusta stands as a poignant reminder of the human cost of war, the fragility of honor and trust in times of conflict, and the enduring power of symbols in shaping history.

Top image: 1570–1576 Titian's Flaying of Marsyas. Some researchers such as Helen Lessore speculate that Bragadin's flaying provided the inspiration for this painting.                Source: Public Domain

By Aleksa Vučković