Pharaoh Psamtik I and the Fall of Ashdod

Pharaoh Psamtik I, who reigned during the 26th Dynasty of Egypt, was one of the most significant rulers in Egyptian history, leading the country out of a period of fragmentation and restoring its status as a major power in the ancient world. His reign, lasting from 664 to 610 BC, marked a critical moment in Egyptian political and military history. A key event during Psamtik I’s rule was the Fall of Ashdod, a strategic coastal city in the Levant. This event was not only a demonstration of Psamtik's military prowess but also highlighted the shifting balance of power in the Near East during the 7th century BC. But did you know that it was also one of the longest sieges in military history?

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Ashdod Buckled Under Psamtik’s Relentless Pressure

The story of Psamtik I and the fall of Ashdod cannot be fully understood without looking at the broader geopolitical context of the time. Egypt, during the late 8th and early 7th centuries BC, had been a weakened state, suffering under foreign domination by the Assyrians and enduring internal instability. The collapse of Egypt's once-formidable New Kingdom power had led to centuries of turmoil, with the country split into several rival factions and foreign entities seeking control of the region. Psamtik I’s rise to power and consolidation of Egypt as a unified state was a remarkable achievement in this context. His military campaigns, including the siege of Ashdod, were central to his effort to restore Egypt's sovereignty and regional influence.

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Psamtek Enters Ashdod (Patrick Gray/CC BY 2.0)

This famed pharaoh came to power during a turbulent period when Egypt was under the dominance of the Assyrian Empire, which had established a strong foothold in the region. Following the death of Pharaoh Taharqa, a Nubian ruler from the 25th Dynasty, Egypt experienced further fragmentation. The Assyrians, under Esarhaddon and his successor Ashurbanipal, had solidified their control over Egypt, placing it under the rule of a series of puppet kings. Psamtik I, initially installed by the Assyrians as a regional governor of Sais, quickly proved himself a capable and ambitious leader.

By forging alliances with key Greek mercenaries and building strong relationships with local Egyptian elites, Psamtik I was able to consolidate power and gradually push the Assyrians out of Egypt. This period saw a resurgence of Egyptian nationalism, and Psamtik I capitalized on the decline of Assyrian influence in the Near East. By the early 650s BC, Psamtik I had successfully reunited Egypt under his rule and established the Saite Dynasty, which would govern for more than a century. His focus then turned to securing Egypt's borders and expanding its influence beyond the Nile Valley, particularly along the Mediterranean coast.

The Ambitions of a Rising Pharaoh

Ashdod, located in what is now modern-day Israel, was one of the key Philistine cities during this period and a crucial coastal stronghold in the Levant. It held strategic importance due to its location along key trade routes between Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the broader Mediterranean region. Control of Ashdod meant control over vital trade and military routes, which was particularly important for Egypt’s ambitions of expanding its influence northward into the Levant.

However, the region of Philistia was fraught with conflict during the 7th century BC. The Philistine cities, including Ashdod, had been subjected to repeated invasions and control by the Assyrians, who sought to dominate this crucial buffer zone between their empire and Egypt. As Assyrian power began to wane during the reign of Ashurbanipal, who faced rebellions and pressures from other powers, the opportunity arose for local powers like Egypt to assert themselves.

Ashdod, in particular, had become a flashpoint of resistance to Assyrian rule. The city had endured earlier sieges, including a famous revolt against the Assyrians in 711 BC, led by a local leader named Yamani. Although Yamani’s revolt had been crushed, the city retained its rebellious spirit and remained a symbol of resistance in the region. For Psamtik I, taking control of Ashdod would be both a strategic victory and a symbol of Egypt’s resurgence as a regional power.

The Madaba Map, showing the two cities of ΑϹΔⲰ... / ASDŌ... / Asdod (Tel Ashdod) and ΑΖⲰΤΟϹΠΑΡΑΛ[ΙΟϹ] / AZŌTOSPARAL[IOS] / Azotus-by-the-Sea (Ashdod-Yam) (Dosseman/CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Long Siege

The siege of Ashdod, which reportedly lasted 29 years, stands as one of the longest sieges in the history of the ancient Near East. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, who documented the event, Psamtik I embarked on a protracted military campaign to capture the city around the middle of his reign. Herodotus’s account, though brief, highlights the significance of the siege, as it demonstrated the Egyptian ruler’s determination to assert control over the region.

Despite the length of the siege, it is important to understand that ancient sieges were often drawn-out affairs, characterized by intermittent fighting, blockades, and attempts to starve the inhabitants into submission. In the case of Ashdod, Psamtik I likely employed a combination of these tactics. The city, well-fortified and located in a defensible position, would have been difficult to assault directly, especially given the involvement of other regional powers like the Assyrians.

Nevertheless, Psamtik’s persistence paid off, and after nearly three decades of conflict, the city of Ashdod fell to Egyptian forces. The capture of Ashdod was a major victory for Psamtik I, allowing Egypt to establish a foothold in the Levant and assert itself as a rival to the Assyrian Empire. The significance of this victory also lay in the message it sent to other cities in the region, as it demonstrated that Psamtik I’s Egypt was a force to be reckoned with.

The Fall of Ashdod was part of Psamtik I’s broader foreign policy goals, which aimed at reclaiming Egypt’s influence in the Near East and ensuring the country’s security from both internal and external threats. The collapse of Assyrian control in the Levant offered a unique opportunity for Egypt to expand its influence into areas that had once been under the control of foreign powers.

Assyrian capture of an Egyptian city in 663 BC. British Museum (Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg)/CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Resurgence of Ancient Egypt

Psamtik I's use of Greek mercenaries was a key element of his foreign policy. By incorporating these highly skilled soldiers into his military, Psamtik was able to bolster Egypt’s forces and make up for any deficiencies in native manpower. This reliance on foreign soldiers also reflects the cosmopolitan nature of the 26th Dynasty, which was open to diplomatic and military engagement with powers outside the traditional Egyptian sphere of influence.

In addition to his military campaigns, Psamtik I was also known for his diplomatic acumen. He maintained peaceful relations with the emerging powers of Babylon and the Medes, who were both involved in the eventual downfall of the Assyrian Empire. Psamtik’s strategy was one of balance - he aimed to position Egypt as a regional power while avoiding direct confrontations with the major powers of Mesopotamia.

The ultimate fall of Ashdod had a significant impact on the geopolitical landscape of the Levant and Egypt’s role in the region. With Ashdod under Egyptian control, Psamtik I could project Egyptian power further into the Levant, ensuring the security of Egypt’s borders and expanding its influence along the Mediterranean coast. This control over key trade routes also brought economic benefits to Egypt, as it allowed Psamtik to control and tax trade between the Levant and the Mediterranean.

Moreover, the capture of Ashdod was a psychological victory for Egypt, demonstrating that the country had fully recovered from its period of decline and was capable of challenging other major powers in the region. For the Philistine cities and other states in the Levant, the fall of Ashdod was a stark reminder of Egypt’s renewed military strength and its ability to influence affairs in the Near East. All of this brought further fame to Pharaoh Psamtik.

Always a Bigger Fish

However, Egypt’s control over Ashdod and other parts of the Levant would be short-lived. The rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar II in the late 7th century BC eventually challenged Egypt’s dominance in the region. Egypt’s involvement in the region culminated in the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BC, where Egypt and its allies, led by Psamtik’s successor, Necho II, were decisively defeated by the Babylonians. This defeat marked the end of Egypt’s ambitions in the Levant and ushered in a new era of Babylonian dominance.

The Battle of Carchemish, as depicted in Hutchinson's Story of the Nations (1900) (Public Domain)

But even so, Pharaoh Psamtik I’s siege and eventual capture of Ashdod was a defining moment in his reign and in the history of Egypt’s foreign policy. By securing this strategic city, Psamtik I was able to extend Egypt’s influence into the Levant and demonstrate that Egypt had regained its position as a major power in the ancient world. He understood this at the get-go: it is because of this that he committed his resources to such a protracted siege. The fall of Ashdod symbolized Egypt’s resurgence after centuries of fragmentation and decline, and it allowed Psamtik I to assert control over key trade routes that were vital to Egypt’s economy and security.

Despite the eventual decline of Egyptian power in the region, the victory over this Philistine city remains a testament to Psamtik I’s military skill and the determination of a skilled commander. It also illustrates the complex and ever-shifting nature of power dynamics in the ancient Near East, where cities like Ashdod were caught between competing empires. Psamtik I’s legacy, as both a unifier of Egypt and a skilled military leader, is forever intertwined with the story of Ashdod, a city that played a crucial role in the broader history of the ancient Mediterranean world.

Let the Centuries Unfold

Pharaoh Psamtik enjoyed great fame during his reign. In many ways, he brought Egypt back from its knees and into the spotlight once more. Due to this, he was admired as a powerful ruler and a competent leader whose ambitions brought him to a lofty position. As such, he reigned for a very long time, likely for 54 years. He ultimately died in 610 BC, and was succeeded at the throne by his son, Necho II. And even though Necho was a successful ruler, he never managed to reach the fame of his late father.

Bust of a pharaoh found at Heliopolis. (Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities)

Psamtik’s lasting fame was evidenced in a recent archeological discovery, when in 2017 Egyptian and German archaeologists discovered a colossal statue of this pharaoh, in Heliopolis. The majestic statue is about 7.9 meters (26 ft) tall, and it is the largest statue of the Late Period that was ever discovered in Egypt. It was made in the classical Egyptian style, indicating that the age of prosperity brought by Psamtik allowed the nation to return to its roots. And this too, is a major part of his largely overlooked legacy

Top image: Relief of Psamtik I making an offering to Ra-Horakhty (Tomb of Pabasa). Right: The Madaba Map, showing the two cities of ΑϹΔⲰ... / ASDŌ... / Asdod (Tel Ashdod) and ΑΖⲰΤΟϹΠΑΡΑΛ[ΙΟϹ] / AZŌTOSPARAL[IOS] / Azotus-by-the-Sea (Ashdod-Yam). Source: Public Domain, Dosseman/CC BY-SA 4.0

By Aleksa Vučković

References
Bierbrier, M. L. 2022. Historical Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Rowman & Littlefield.

Breasted, J. H. 2001. Ancient Records of Egypt: Supplementary bibliographies and indices. University of Illinois Press.

Morkot, R. G. 2010. The A to Z of Ancient Egyptian Warfare. Scarecrow Press.