The Cost of Expanding Rome: Accounting the Salaries of Roman Soldiers

The income of Roman soldiers is a topic that many avoid. After all, studying the accounting and calculating the income of a Roman soldier does not arouse the same interest as the legionaries themselves. But this will help us understand why military service was considered prestigious and why a large number of people wanted to join.

The relatively high income and privileges in the Roman army were the greatest motivations for young people to enter service. This was also the largest item of expenditure for the Empire.

According to some data, the maintenance of the legions consumed 40–50% of the state's budget even in the peace period. The mightiest army of the early Empire consumed a colossal amount of gold, which unequivocally tells us that the army was the most important aspect of Roman statehood.

This article explores the annual income starting from an auxiliary (soldier of auxiliary troops) and a legionary private to a tribune and a legate (senior positions of the legion). It also looks at the purchasing power of this money to better understand their magnitude. The basis is the period of the reign of Augustus to Domitian.

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Roman cavalry battle as depicted on the north face of the Mausoleum of Glanum in southern France. (Cancre / CC BY-SA 4.0)

Annual Salary of the Cavalry

The "stipendium" was the term used for the annual salary of Roman soldiers. Under Augustus, the stipendium of a legionary was set at 225 denarii, paid in three installments per year, up until the reign of Domitian. Domitian then increased the salary to 300 denarii, paid in four installments. These figures of 225 and 300 denarii are the key numbers used to calculate the salaries of military personnel in other units and branches. For example, legionary cavalrymen received 300 denarii, while the legionary infantry received 225 denarii.

The auxiliary troops made up nearly half the Roman army, but their pay was much lower than legionaries. Roughly, an auxiliary infantryman received 75 denarii (1/3 of a legionary's pay).

Auxiliary cavalry received 150-200 denarii, while cavalry of the alae received 250 denarii. Sailors of the Praetorian fleet received 150 denarii, while those in provincial fleets received 75 denarii. All new recruits were paid 75 denarii in multiple installments to cover travel expenses to their assigned units.

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A coin hoard of 198 Roman silver denarii and 13 fragmentary denarii found in the UK. (The Portable Antiquities Scheme/ The Trustees of the British Museum/CC BY-SA 2.0)

Pay at the Garrison of Rome

The garrison of Rome is a separate budget item, on the level of legions and auxiliary cohorts, with a premium paid, much like occurs today in London and other expensive capital cities. Night watch soldiers received 150 denarii, while urban cohort infantry received 375 denarii. The Praetorian Guards fared much better, with an annual income of 750 denarii for infantry and around 1,000 denarii for cavalry. Centurions in the Praetorian Guard received the same pay as legionary centurions, which will be specified below.

Soldier salaries were relatively high compared to farmers or commoners, but only about 1/3 of the total amount was paid out directly, as 2/3 was deducted for their own upkeep - clothing, weapons, food, and animal fodder. Some soldiers paid part of their money for exemption from work and 'peaceful' service. Though in some periods, the state treasury fully covered troop maintenance, allowing legionaries to keep most of their earned pay.

Officers and Junior Commanders

The difference in income between soldiers and officers was quite significant. Under Domitian, the salaries of the officer corps were approximately as follows:

Principales in the legion (aquilifer, signifer) - 450 denarii

Evocati (veterans who re-enlisted after retirement) - 900 denarii

Centurions of the 2nd-10th cohorts - 5,000 denarii

Centurion of the 1st cohort - 10,000 denarii

Primus Pilus (senior centurion) of the legion - 25,000 denarii

Prefect of an auxiliary cohort - 5,000 denarii

Tribune in the legion - 10,000 denarii

Prefect of a cavalry ala - 15,000 denarii

Legate of the legion - 50,000 denarii

As can be seen, a soldier who rose to the officer ranks could fully cover all their needs and feel quite comfortable.

Gifts and Bonuses

A significant portion of a soldier's income came from gifts from the emperor on holidays. The money was mainly allocated from the imperial treasury. The amounts were always different and depended on the specific holiday and emperor. The largest bonuses were paid on the day of the emperor's accession to the throne and on the emperor's birthday. Unfortunately, we have almost no data on these payments, but we can still provide some, albeit rather inaccurate, calculations:

• Augustus paid 2,500 denarii to soldiers during the ceremonial return to Rome after a successful military campaign;
• A payment of 250 denarii to the Praetorians, 150 denarii to the city guard, and 75 denarii to legionaries and auxiliary troops according to Augustus' will, after his death;
• Caligula, on the occasion of his accession to power, paid ~2,200 denarii to the Praetorians, 110 denarii to the city guard, 75 denarii to legionaries and other soldiers;
• Claudius paid 3,750 or 5,000 denarii (according to different sources) to each Praetorian on the occasion of his accession to power, and 25 denarii on the anniversary of his accession to the throne.

Soldiers were paid only half the amount in hand, and the rest they received after retirement. This way, the soldier saved for old age and did not spend all the money on pleasures.

Vector Illustration of Caesar Augustus Founder of Roman Empire and its First Emperor. (Designed by Wannapik)

Dismissal and Retirement

A significant portion of the country's budget went to soldiers who were retired. From 13 BC, instead of land, veterans began to receive monetary rewards (praemia nummaria). For this purpose, Emperor Augustus created a special military treasury and contributed 170 million sesterces (42,5 million denarii) of his own funds as starting capital. The size of the "severance pay" was set at 3,000 denarii for legionaries and 5,000 for Praetorians. A fairly substantial amount. By investing it at 6% per annum, the veteran could receive 300 denarii over 14 years, an amount equal to his pay. Veteran auxiliary troops did not receive veteran benefits upon retirement.

The Roman treasury spent enormous sums of money annually on reward payments. With 25-30 legions, the number of veterans annually was around 6,000-7,000 people. Considering the increased payments to the officer corps, the theoretical sum of reward payments could have been around 14 million denarii.

Purchasing Power of the Denarius

To understand the size of a soldier's wages, let's examine how many modii (modius) of wheat could be purchased with this money. One modius equals 8.754 liters or 6.73 kg of wheat. The weight of 1 loaf of bread is approximately 327 grams or 1 Roman pound. From one modius, about 20 loaves of bread could be made. The cost of a modius of wheat in mid-1st century Rome was approximately 32 asses or 3 denarii (1 denarius = 10 asses) and 2 asses per loaf of bread. The cost of wheat and bread in the provinces was almost 2 times lower, equaling 1.5 denarii (15-16 asses) per modius and 1 as per loaf of bread.

With a salary of 300 denarii and about 100 denarii received in hand, a legionary could buy 1,000 loaves of bread in the provinces or 500 loaves in Rome. If we take the period when the soldier received money without deductions, this would be approximately 3,000 loaves in the provinces and 1,500 in Rome. If he bought wheat instead of the finished product, 100 denarii could be enough for 33 modii of wheat (660 loaves of bread) in Rome, and 66 modii (1,320 loaves of bread) in the provinces. Without deductions - 100 modii (~2,000 loaves) in Rome and 200 modii (4,000 loaves) in the provinces. In fact, one legionary could feed a small town for a day with his salary.

It is also worth remembering the additional payments and military trophies during campaigns. It is almost impossible to calculate how much money each legionary had during a year of service, but even his regular salary represents a fairly good amount to go into military service.

Top image: Roman legions awaiting their salary.             Source: Pillow Productions/Adobe Stock

By Ivan Borovyk